An exploratory study of the evolution of urban green spaces in Lisbon using diachronic analysis of orthophoto maps
Abstract
Green urbanism, namely in the form of consolidated urban green spaces (UGSs), has gained traction along with the reformist impetus of urban design, based on the ideal of efficient, functional, sustainable cities that promote a better quality of life for their citizens and on the notion of making urban expansion compatible with natural resources. Using a diachronic analysis (1995–2020) of the orthophoto maps of 38 UGSs included in the last version of the main municipality’s legislation, framed within the Plano Director Municipal (PDM), whose first version was approved in 1994, we assessed the situation and evolution of the UGSs in the centre of Lisbon, Portugal. We conclude that with fewer or more incidences, depending on the periods analysed, the structure of UGSs in the centre of Lisbon has undergone significant changes, whether in terms of the implementation and requalification of existing UGSs or in terms of the increment and quality of UGSs (space created), thus respecting to a lesser or greater degree the strategic lines defined in various plans, as is the case of the PDM itself, but also of other important documents, such as the Carta Estratégica 2010–2024, Estratégia de Reabilitação Urbana 2011–2024 and Estratégia Regional de Lisboa 2030.
Keyword : Lisbon, green urbanism, Urban Green Spaces (UGSs), orthophoto maps, diachronic analysis
How to Cite
Ramneantu, K., & Marat-Mendes, T. (2024). An exploratory study of the evolution of urban green spaces in Lisbon using diachronic analysis of orthophoto maps. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 48(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.3846/jau.2024.19687
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Kabisch, N., & Haasse, D. (2013). Green spaces of European cities revisited for 1990–2006. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.017
Kabisch, N., Qureshi, S., & Haase, D. (2015). Human–environment interactions in urban green spaces – A systematic review of contemporary issues and prospects for future research. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 50, 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.08.007
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Lehmann, S. (2005). Towards a sustainable city centre: Integrating Ecologically Sustainable Development principles into urban renewal. Journal of Green Building, 1(3), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.3992/jgb.1.3.83
Lehmann, S., & Mainguy, G. (2010). Green urbanism: Formulating a series of holistic principles. Sapiens, 3(2), 1–10.
Lisboa Interativa. (2020). Plataforma de informação georreferenciada do Município de Lisboa. https://websig.cm-lisboa.pt/MuniSIG/visualizador/index.html?viewer=LxInterativa.LXi
Luz, A. C., Buijs, M., Aleixo, C., Metelo, I., Grilo, F., Branquinho, C., Santos-Reis, M., & Pinho, P. (2019). Should I stay or should I go? Modelling the fluxes of urban residents to visit green spaces. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 40, 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.01.009
Markevych, I., Schoierer, J., Hartig, T., Chudnovsky, A., Hystad, P., Dzhambov, A. M., de Vries, S., Triguero-Mas, M., Brauer, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Lupp, G., Richardson, E. A., Astell-Burt, T., Dimitrova, D., Feng, X., Sadeh, M., Standl, M., Heinrich, J., & Fuertes, E. (2017). Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environmental Research, 158, 301–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.028
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Meerow, S., & Newell, J. P. (2017). Spatial planning for multifunctional green infrastructure: Growing resilience in Detroit. Landscape and Urban Planning, 159, 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.10.005
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Nowak, D. J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.019
Olszewska-Guizzo, A., Sia, A., Fogel, A., & Ho, R. (2020). Can exposure to certain urban green spaces trigger frontal alpha asymmetry in the brain?—Preliminary findings from a passive task EEG study. Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), Article 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020394
Pedro, J., Silva, C., & Pinheiro, M. D. (2019). Integrating GIS spatial dimension into BREEAM communities sustainability assessment to support urban planning policies, Lisbon case study. Land Use Policy, 83, 424–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.02.003
Plano Director Municipal de Lisboa. (1994). Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 94/94, de 29 de setembro. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/resolucao-conselho-ministros/94-1994-609283
Plano Director Municipal de Lisboa. (2012). Manual Técnico do Plano Diretor Municipal de Lisboa. https://www.lisboa.pt/fileadmin/cidade_temas/urbanismo/pdm/Manual_tecnico_PDM.pdf
Saldiva, P. (2018). Vida urbana e saúde: Os desafios dos habitantes das metrópoles. Editora Contexto.
Sia, A., Tam, W. W. S., Fogel, A., Kua, E. H., Khoo, K., & Ho, R. C. M. (2020). Nature-based activities improve the well-being of older adults. Scientific Reports, 10, Article 18178. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74828-w
Swaffield, S. (2002). Theory in landscape architecture. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Tsoka, S. (2017). Investigating the relationship between urban spaces morphology and local microclimate: A study for Thessaloniki. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 38, 674–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.148
United Nations. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision. https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf
Verheij, J., & Nunes, M. C. (2021). Justice and power relations in urban greening: Can Lisbon’s urban greening strategies lead to more environmental justice? Local Environment, 26(3), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2020.1801616
Viebrantz, P., & Fernandes-Jesus, M. (2021). Visitors’ perceptions of urban green spaces: A study of Lisbon’s Alameda and Estrela Parks. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 3, Article 755423. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2021.755423
World Health Organization. (2017). Urban green space interventions and health: A review of impacts and effectiveness. https://www.who.int/andorra/publications/m/item/urban-green-space-interventions-and-health--a-review-of-impacts-and-effectiveness.-full-report
Xue, F. (2019). From biophilic design to biophilic urbanism: Stakeholders’ perspectives. Journal of Cleaner Production, 211, 1444–1452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.277
Zhong, W., Schröder, T., & Bekkering, J. (2022). Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, wellbeing, and sustainability: A critical review. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 11(1), 114–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.07.006
Área Metropolitana de Lisboa, & Comissão de Coordenação de Desenvolvimento Regional de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo. (2020). Estratégia Regional de Lisboa 2030. https://documentacao.aml.pt/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/estrategia-regional-lisboa-2030-aml.pdf
Arifwidodo, S. D., & Chandrasiri, O. (2021). The effects of park improvement on park use and park-based physical activity. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 45(1), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.3846/jau.2021.11845
Ayala-Azcárraga, C., Diaz, D., & Zambrano, L. (2019). Characteristics of urban parks and their relation to user well-being. Landscape and Urban Planning, 189, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.04.005
Badiu, D. L., Onose, D. A., Nita, M. R., & Lafortezza, R. (2019). From “red” to green? A look into the evolution of green spaces in a post-socialist city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 187, 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.015
Beatley, T. (2010). Biophilic cities: Integrating nature into urban design and planning. Island Press. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-59726-986-5_4
Beatley, T. (2017). Biophilic cities and healthy societies. Urban Planning, 2(4), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v2i4.1054
Beatley, T., & Newman, P. (2013). Biophilic cities are sustainable, resilient cities. Sustainability, 5(8), 3328–3345. https://doi.org/10.3390/su5083328
Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity. Sage.
Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our common future. Oxford University Press.
Burtan, D., Burn, J. F., & Leonards, U. (2021). Nature benefits revisited: Differences in gait kinematics between nature and urban images disappear when image types are controlled for likeability. PloS One, 16(8), Article 0256635. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256635
Burton, E. (1997). The compact city: Just or just compact? A preliminary analysis. Urban Studies, 37(11), 1969–2006. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980050162184
Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. (1992). Plano Estratégico de Lisboa. Direcção de Projecto de Planeamento Estratégico.
Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. (2002). Visão Estratégica 2002–2012. https://www.lisboa.pt/cidade/urbanismo/planeamento-urbano/evolucao
Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. (2009). Carta Estratégica de Lisboa 2010-2024 – Um compromisso para o futuro da cidade. https://www.lisboa.pt/fileadmin/municipio/camara/documentos/Carta_Estrategica_Lisboa_2010_2024.pdf
Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. (2011). Estratégia de reabilitação urbana de Lisboa 2011-2014. https://www.lisboa.pt/fileadmin/cidade_temas/urbanismo/reabilitacao_Urbana/documentos/estrategia_reabilitacao.pdf
Chen, W., & Jim, C. Y. (2008). Assessment and valuation of the ecosystem services provided by urban forests. In M. M. Carreiro, Y. Song, & J. Wu (Eds.), Ecology, planning and management of urban forests (pp. 53–83). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-71425-7_5
Deming, E. M., & Swaffield, S. (2011). Landscape architectural research: Inquiry, strategy, design. John Willey & Sons. https://doi.org/10.3939/JoLA.2011.2011.11.34
Farkas, J. Z., Hoyk, E., Morais, M. B., & Csomós, G. (2023). A systematic review of urban green space research over the last 30 years: A bibliometric analysis. Heliyon, 9(2), Article e13406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13406
Fuller, R. A., & Gaston, K. J. (2009). The scaling of green space coverage in European cities. Biology Letters, 5(3), 352–355. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0010
Gonçalves, P., Vierikko, K., Elands, B., Haase, D., Catarina Luz, A., & Santos-Reis, M. (2021). Biocultural diversity in an urban context: An indicator-based decision support tool to guide the planning and management of green infrastructure. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 11, Article 100131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2021.100131
Hunter, R. F., Cleland, C., Cleary, A., Droomers, M., Wheeler, B. W., Sinnette, D., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., & Braubach, M. (2019). Environmental, health, wellbeing, social and equity effects of urban green space interventions: A meta-narrative evidence synthesis. Environment International, 130, Article 104923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.104923
Kabisch, N., & Haasse, D. (2013). Green spaces of European cities revisited for 1990–2006. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.017
Kabisch, N., Qureshi, S., & Haase, D. (2015). Human–environment interactions in urban green spaces – A systematic review of contemporary issues and prospects for future research. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 50, 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.08.007
Kajosaari, A., Hasanzadeh, K., Fagerholm, N., Nummi, P., Kuusisto-Hjort, P., & Kyttä, M. (2024). Predicting context-sensitive urban green space quality to support urban green infrastructure planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 242, Article 104952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104952
Kellert, S. R. (2008). Biophilic design: The theory, science and practice of bringing buildings to life. Willey & Sons.
Lee, A. C. K., & Maheswaran, R. (2011). The health benefits of urban green spaces: A review of the evidence. Journal of Public Health, 33(2), 212–222. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdq068
Lehmann, S. (2005). Towards a sustainable city centre: Integrating Ecologically Sustainable Development principles into urban renewal. Journal of Green Building, 1(3), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.3992/jgb.1.3.83
Lehmann, S., & Mainguy, G. (2010). Green urbanism: Formulating a series of holistic principles. Sapiens, 3(2), 1–10.
Lisboa Interativa. (2020). Plataforma de informação georreferenciada do Município de Lisboa. https://websig.cm-lisboa.pt/MuniSIG/visualizador/index.html?viewer=LxInterativa.LXi
Luz, A. C., Buijs, M., Aleixo, C., Metelo, I., Grilo, F., Branquinho, C., Santos-Reis, M., & Pinho, P. (2019). Should I stay or should I go? Modelling the fluxes of urban residents to visit green spaces. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 40, 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.01.009
Markevych, I., Schoierer, J., Hartig, T., Chudnovsky, A., Hystad, P., Dzhambov, A. M., de Vries, S., Triguero-Mas, M., Brauer, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Lupp, G., Richardson, E. A., Astell-Burt, T., Dimitrova, D., Feng, X., Sadeh, M., Standl, M., Heinrich, J., & Fuertes, E. (2017). Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance. Environmental Research, 158, 301–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.028
McPherson, E. G. (2001). Can trees win the battle with infrastructure? Arborist News, 10(3), 21–24.
McPherson, G. E., Berry, A., & van Doorn, N. (2018). Performance testing to identify climate-ready trees. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.09.003
Meerow, S., & Newell, J. P. (2017). Spatial planning for multifunctional green infrastructure: Growing resilience in Detroit. Landscape and Urban Planning, 159, 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.10.005
Município de Lisboa. (2020). Alteração por adaptação do Plano Diretor Municipal de Lisboa (DRE Declaração n.º 70/2020). https://dre.pt/dre/detalhe/declaracao/70-2020-141967637
Nowak, D. J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.019
Olszewska-Guizzo, A., Sia, A., Fogel, A., & Ho, R. (2020). Can exposure to certain urban green spaces trigger frontal alpha asymmetry in the brain?—Preliminary findings from a passive task EEG study. Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), Article 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020394
Pedro, J., Silva, C., & Pinheiro, M. D. (2019). Integrating GIS spatial dimension into BREEAM communities sustainability assessment to support urban planning policies, Lisbon case study. Land Use Policy, 83, 424–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.02.003
Plano Director Municipal de Lisboa. (1994). Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 94/94, de 29 de setembro. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/resolucao-conselho-ministros/94-1994-609283
Plano Director Municipal de Lisboa. (2012). Manual Técnico do Plano Diretor Municipal de Lisboa. https://www.lisboa.pt/fileadmin/cidade_temas/urbanismo/pdm/Manual_tecnico_PDM.pdf
Saldiva, P. (2018). Vida urbana e saúde: Os desafios dos habitantes das metrópoles. Editora Contexto.
Sia, A., Tam, W. W. S., Fogel, A., Kua, E. H., Khoo, K., & Ho, R. C. M. (2020). Nature-based activities improve the well-being of older adults. Scientific Reports, 10, Article 18178. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74828-w
Swaffield, S. (2002). Theory in landscape architecture. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Tsoka, S. (2017). Investigating the relationship between urban spaces morphology and local microclimate: A study for Thessaloniki. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 38, 674–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.148
United Nations. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision. https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf
Verheij, J., & Nunes, M. C. (2021). Justice and power relations in urban greening: Can Lisbon’s urban greening strategies lead to more environmental justice? Local Environment, 26(3), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2020.1801616
Viebrantz, P., & Fernandes-Jesus, M. (2021). Visitors’ perceptions of urban green spaces: A study of Lisbon’s Alameda and Estrela Parks. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 3, Article 755423. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2021.755423
World Health Organization. (2017). Urban green space interventions and health: A review of impacts and effectiveness. https://www.who.int/andorra/publications/m/item/urban-green-space-interventions-and-health--a-review-of-impacts-and-effectiveness.-full-report
Xue, F. (2019). From biophilic design to biophilic urbanism: Stakeholders’ perspectives. Journal of Cleaner Production, 211, 1444–1452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.277
Zhong, W., Schröder, T., & Bekkering, J. (2022). Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, wellbeing, and sustainability: A critical review. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 11(1), 114–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.07.006